What type of rock represents the oldest on the map (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic)?

LAB 7: Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics (modified from Anderson et al., Christopherson, and the Southern California Earthquake Center with major modifications by D. Fairbanks)

Name ANSWER KEY Lab Section Date

Materials and sources that will help you • Calculator • a square piece of card or paper on which you can mark distances • a compass for drawing circles • Internet connection: Google Earth

Key Terms:

asthenosphere continental drift core crust effusive eruption hot spots mantle mid-ocean ridges orogenesis

Pangaea plate tectonics plumes sea-floor spreading seismic waves subduction zone transform faults shield volcano composite volcano rock cycle

Introduction Plate tectonics theory was a revolution in twentieth century Earth science. The past few decades have seen profound breakthroughs in our understanding of how the continents and oceans evolved, why earthquakes and volcanoes occur where they do, and the reasons for the present arrangement and movement of landmasses. One task of physical geography is to explain the spatial implications of this knowledge and its effect on Earth’s landforms and human society.

As Earth solidified, heavier elements slowly gravitated toward the center, and lighter elements slowly welled upward to the surface, concentrating in the crust. Earth’s interior is highly structured, with uneven heating generated by the radioactive decay of unstable elements. The results of this heating and instability are irregular patterns of moving, warping, and breaking of the crust.

Preview the following video then proceed with the laboratory assignment: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDqskltCixA

Section 1: Earths Internal Structure and Rock cycle Earthquakes occur because the Earth’s surface is broken up into approximately 15 rigid plates that collide, pull apart, and grind past one another. These plates make up Earth’s lithosphere, which includes both the crust (the thin, outermost layer of the earth) and the rigid upper portion of the mantle. The plates are a variety of different sizes and shapes. Some, like the Pacific Plate, are found entirely underneath ocean basins, whereas others, like the North American Plate, include parts of both continents and the ocean floor. The thickness of the plates varies as well: portions of plates can be anywhere from 5 to 60 kilometers thick. Beneath the plates lies the soft, easily deformed asthenosphere. The weak asthenosphere allows the rigid plates to move around above it. The rock cycle, through processes in the atmosphere, crust, and mantle, produces three basic rock types – igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The tectonic cycle brings heat energy and new materials to the surface and recycles old materials to mantle depths, creating movement and deformation of the crust.

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1. Using the California Geology map handed out to you, determine the geomorphic province of California that is composed of a majority of the following rock types. a. Sedimentary rocks?

Great Valley Province

b. Igneous rocks?

Sierra Nevada Province, Cascade Range Province, Modoc Plateau Province

c. Metamorphic rocks?

Klamath Mountains Province 2. The legend on the geology map indicates eons, eras and periods for the rock units. The following table lists the approximate dates associated with these eons, eras and periods.

a. What type of rock represents the oldest on the map (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic)? What geomorphic province are they found in? Metamorphic; Klamath Mountains, Basin and Range, Sierra Nevada, Mojave Desert b. What type of rock represents the youngest on the map (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic)? What geomorphic province are they found in? Sedimentary; Great Valley Section 2: Earthquake Faults and Seismic Activity Plate boundaries come in three different types: convergent (where plates move towards one another, such as in the Himalayas, beneath Japan, or on the Pacific coast of South America), divergent (where plate pull apart from one another, such as along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge), and transform (where plates slide horizontally past one another, such as along the San Andreas Fault in California). Convergent/Compression Divergent/Tension Transform

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Earthquakes occur when rocks suddenly slide past one another along faults. Most earthquakes occur along faults near plate boundaries, releasing the energy built up over tens, hundreds or thousands of years, during which the plates tried to move, but remained stuck. Seismologists (scientists who study earthquakes) are still unable to predict when an earthquake is likely to occur, but they are very good at predicting where earthquakes are likely. However, there have been some large earthquakes in the middle of plates, usually along weak zones that were plate boundaries in the distant past (i.e. New Meridian fault along the Mississippi river near St. Louis, MO). The size of an earthquake depends mostly on the size of the fault that slipped. The enormous (M 9+) earthquake that occurred in Indonesia on December 26, 2004, generating a catastrophic tsunami, ruptured 1200 to 1300 kilometers (750 miles) of the plate boundary between the Indian Plate and Indonesia. In comparison, the 1906 San Francisco earthquake (M 7.8) was caused by slip along 430 kilometers (267 miles) of the San Andreas Fault, which forms the boundary between the North American and Pacific Plates. Larger earthquakes also occur when the two sides of the fault slip longer distances past one another: Indonesia moved approximately 15 meters (50 feet) compared with the Indian Ocean floor, whereas North America only moved 3 to 6 meters (10 to 20 feet) past the Pacific Plate. In all earthquakes, energy is released as the two sides of the fault slide past one another. This energy, which generates the ground shaking that causes much of the damage during earthquakes, is carried through rock by seismic waves. Seismic waves come in two forms: body waves and surface waves. Body waves move through the Earth’s interior, and travel much more quickly than surface waves. Surface waves move over the surface of the Earth, and cause much of the destruction during earthquakes. Body Waves P waves (also known as primary or compressional waves) are the first seismic waves to arrive at an earthquake recording (seismograph) station after an earthquake occurs. Primary waves behave much like sound waves, traveling through both solid and liquid layers of the Earth by compressing and stretching the rocks through which they travel. P waves travel as fast as 5.5 km/second, or more than 12,000 miles per hour, depending on the type of substance through which they travel. Because P waves travel in a linear motion, there is little displacement of Earth materials. Primary waves are the least damaging of all seismic waves. S waves (also known as secondary or shear waves) are a second type of body wave. S waves travel in a serpent-like motion, changing both the shape and volume of rock as they travel through it. Unlike P waves, S waves can only travel through solid rock; S waves cannot travel through liquids. In fact, S waves are one of the main things that tell us that the Earth has a liquid outer core: no S waves are recorded on the directly opposite side of Earth from an earthquake. S waves travel more slowly than P waves, reaching a maximum velocity of about 3 km/second; when an earthquake occurs, a seismograph records a P wave first, then an S wave. S waves can be more damaging than P waves. The farther a seismograph station is from an earthquake epicenter, the longer it will take for seismic waves to arrive. The time lag between the first shaking due to P waves and due to S waves also increases with distance from the epicenter. This time lag allows seismologists to precisely calculate the distance between an epicenter and their seismograph stations, and to determine the location of the epicenter. You will determine an epicenter location by hand later in this lab; computers follow a similar procedure to locate real earthquakes. Both types of body waves shake with high frequencies (that is, they shake rapidly). The high frequencies of body waves are often similar to the natural frequencies of short buildings and other structures. As the frequencies of body waves approach the natural frequencies of buildings, the buildings begin to vibrate; if the frequency of the seismic waves matches the “resonant frequency” of the building, the building may collapse. The amount of shaking increases towards the top of tall buildings, in a fashion similar to the child’s game “Crack the Whip,” where the greatest amount of energy is felt at the end of the line. The intensity of shaking caused by body waves decreases away from the epicenter, in the same way that loud sounds seem quieter the farther you are from the source. This causes the worst damage, in general, to occur nearest the epicenter of an earthquake. However, shaking is typically quite intense all along the fault, and many other factors (including the type of ground supporting a building and the materials from which a building is constructed) also contribute to the amount of damage that occurs.

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Surface Waves Surface waves are seismic waves that travel along the earth’s surface, rather than through solid bodies of rock. There are two types of surface waves: Rayleigh waves and Love waves. Both types of waves travel more slowly than body waves, and both types of waves are more destructive than both P and S waves, in part because they have lower frequencies, which are similar to the natural frequencies of tall buildings.

Rayleigh waves, named after Lord Rayleigh, an English physicist, travel in a backwards elliptical motion, much like the upwards uncoiling of a spring or the rolling motion of an ocean wave. Rayleigh waves are the last to arrive at a location distant from the epicenter.

Love or L waves, named after English mathematician A.E.H. Love, are horizontal, transverse waves that travel across the surface of the Earth. Like a snake, these type of waves move forward as energy is distributed from side to side.

The intensity of vibrations and, therefore, the damage caused by both surface and body waves, often depends on the type of soil and rock material on which a building sits. Buildings constructed on bedrock usually sustain little damage from an earthquake. Buildings, structures, and cities built on unconsolidated or loose material such as sand, silt, and clay are often subject to devastating loss of property and human lives. Loose or unconsolidated Earth materials often magnify the intensity of seismic waves.

3. Each group take a metal coil and have two students take an end, stretch it and then have one of the students push it towards their partner without releasing the end. Describe how the energy moves through the coil. What type of seismic wave was created? Primary (P) waves 4. Next, have your partner hold the end of the metal coil so that it doesn’t move. Wiggle your end up and down several times. Note that the source of the vibration is moving up and down vertically What do you observe about the motion of the wave as it travels through the metal coil? What type of seismic wave was created? Secondary (S) waves 5. Lastly, you and your partner should stretch out the coil onto a tabletop and then have one of you wiggle the end from side to side while the other partner holds the other end of the metal coil so that it doesn’t move. Note that the source of the vibration is moving horizontally. What do you observe about the motion of the wave as it travels through the metal coil? What type of seismic wave was created? Love (L) waves 6. The understanding of the composition of the Earth’s interior is an example of scientific limitations. How have scientists established this portrait of Earth’s interior since no one has ever sampled the interior below the crust directly? Explain. Scientists gain a picture of the Earth’s interior by measuring the speed and direction of different seismic waves as the travel, as well as how speed and direction of these waves change over time.

Primary or P-waves

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Earthquake Size The size of an earthquake can be measured in two ways: intensity and magnitude.

• Intensity of an earthquake measures the effect of an earthquake on people, objects, and structures, and is determined by reports of people who experienced the earthquake. (If you feel an earthquake, you can help determine its intensity by filling out a questionnaire for the U.S. Geological Survey at http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/dyfi/ )

• Magnitude (measured on a logarithmic scale referred to in the news as the “Richter scale”) is measured based on a seismograph’s record of the amount of shaking during an earthquake. A traditional seismograph consists of a free weight suspended from a wire attached to a support, which is anchored to the ground. A pen is attached to the weight. As the ground shakes, the pen traces a jagged line on the paper below it. The farther the pen moves (and the larger the wobbles recorded on the paper), the higher the amplitude of shaking. Amplitude of shaking is converted to Richter scale magnitude by correcting for distance from the epicenter and taking the logarithm of the amplitude. The resulting magnitudes reflect a 10-fold increase in strength for every one-fold increase in Richter magnitude. An earthquake registering a magnitude 6 is 10 times stronger than magnitude 5, 100 times stronger than magnitude 4, 1000 times stronger than magnitude 3, and 10,000 times stronger than magnitude 2. Magnitudes greater than 7 are classified as major earthquakes, capable of causing mass destruction and death.

7. Go to the following website: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/map/ click on this icon in the upper right hand corner of the web page. This will allow you to modify the map: a. Select 30 Days, magnitude 4.5+, worldwide, then zoom out so you can see the Pacific Ocean.. What does the seismic activity map tell us about plate tectonics in the Pacific region? Seismic activity is generally located along the plate boundary b. Select 30 days, magnitude 2.5+ worldwide, and zoom to just the continental US. . What does the seismic activity map tell us about the Western USA? Seismic activity is generally located on the plate boundary, and specifically along the San Andreas Fault c. Zoom the map to just Hawaii. Why is the seismic activity mostly recorded only on the Big Island of Hawaii? The Pacific Plate is slowly moving northwest, with a “hotspot” that is presently located below the Big Island. As the plate continues to move in this direction, the stationary “hot spot” beneath the plate will cause more volcanic islands will form in a row on the southeastern part of the chain. (Imagine a piece of paper slowly moving over a stationary flame, resulting in a charred line across the paper) 8. Go to the following website: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/dyfi/ and look at the following historic event maps of intensity:

• Loma Prieta, CA October 18, 1989 (click “View Archives” and type in the search field: Loma Prieta 1989-10-18) • Near Reseda, CA Jan 17, 1994 (likewise, type in the search field: Northridge).

While the Reseda earthquake (known in the media as the Northridge earthquake) was slightly smaller than the Loma Prieta earthquake, the Northridge quake had more intensity recorded than the Loma Prieta. Explain why this is using the two maps and your general knowledge of California geography (we did not get to this answer in class)

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Section 3: Locating the Epicenter of an Earthquake When an earthquake occurs, it releases seismic waves that can be detected at stations all around the globe. Remember that there are three types of waves released by an earthquake: primary, secondary, and surface waves. Primary waves (P- waves) travel via compression and are the first to arrive at seismic stations. They generally travel at a rate between 5.95 and 6.75 kilometers per second (km/sec), depending on various factors in the crust including density, compressibility, and rigidity. Secondary waves (S-waves) have a shearing motion and are the second type of wave to be detected, traveling between 2.9 and 4.0 km/sec. The last waves to arrive are the surface waves (L-waves), which have velocities around 2.7 and 3.7 km/sec. Geographers and geologists can use these known travel times to approximate the distance from the reporting station to the epicenter. Three or more stations can compare their distances to the epicenter in order to determine its exact location – known as triangulation. Let’s assume that you work at the seismic reporting station in Golden, Colorado. At 1:45pm you receive the first P-waves from a quake at an unknown location. Surface waves (L-waves) follow at 1:59pm. To determine your distance from the quake you must first establish the difference in arrival times: 1:59pm – 1:45pm = 14 minutes. Using a ruler or a scrap piece of paper, figure out the distance between 14 minutes on the Y axis and move your ruler along the graph until you find a spot where the two lines (P- and L-waves) are exactly 14 minutes apart. Project that location down to the X-axis to determine the distance to the epicenter.

You determine that your epicenter is 2125 km away from your location; however, you do not know the direction to the epicenter! In order to determine the exact location, you must call two colleagues from different reporting stations around the globe.

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Station A The first P-wave arrives at 6:32:45pm. S-waves begin to arrive at 6:39:45pm.

What is the distance to the epicenter? 2300 km

Station B P-waves first appear at 6:30:45pm, L-waves at 6:51:45pm.

What is the distance to the epicenter? 3250 km

Station C P-waves arrive at 6:34:27pm, S-waves follow at 6:47:27pm. What is the distance to the epicenter? 4400 km

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Plot the location of the epicenter by drawing a circle around each station on the next page. The radius of each circle should be equivalent to the distance from that station to the epicenter. Use the same scale as the graph above to determine your distances. The three circles you draw should all intersect at the same point SE of Station A, SW of Station B, and far to the south and slightly to west of Station C.

Distance (kilometers)

Station C

Station A

Station B

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Section 4: Analysis of your city location for seismic hazards

• Hazards – Take a look at the map above taken from your textbook.

1) Rate the earthquake hazard for all three locations as high, medium or low.

! For the city with the highest earthquake hazard, briefly explain the reasons why it has that rating based on the results you discovered about the plate tectonics of the location.

New question: Why do Alaska, Hawaii, and the West Coast of the United States have a high risk of seismic activity? Hawaii is located above a “hot spot” of magma which lies below the Pacific Plate, which is resulting in volcanoes being formed. Alaska, the Aleutian Islands and the West Coast of the U.S. are all along plate boundaries. The boundaries of tectonic plates are prone to earthquakes and volcanoes.