Shinto

Shinto

© Thomas Hilgers

First Encounter

You have heard that Okinawa is especially interesting because it is part of Japan yet also has its

own identity. Okinawa, far south of the main Japanese islands, was a separate country for

centuries and was known as the Kingdom of the Ryukyu Islands. In the middle of maritime trade

routes, it was influenced by China and other neighbors, whose ships docked there. However, its

indigenous languages, culture, and religion show many similarities to Japanese language and

culture and to the Shinto religion. Full of questions about Japan and its southern islands, you plan

a trip.

You are now staying in Naha, on the main island, at a Japanese-style business hotel. Your room

looks like a regular hotel room, but in the basement of the hotel is a large spa with two pools—

one cold and one hot—and a big Jacuzzi. There are also two saunas—wet and dry—and electric

massage chairs that have five different settings. You investigate each setting and decide that this

hotel is a perfect base for exploration.

The city is modern. Next to a canal runs a monorail. Malls are full of shops, restaurants, and

shoppers. You could spend days just walking around Naha and looking at its signs, but you

decide to explore a quieter part of town. You take a taxi to a hill that you have been told has

some shrines and offers a wonderful view of the city and the ocean beyond.

The taxi drops you off at the bottom of the hill. You find yourself in another world, a location

almost from another century. The first place you encounter is an open grassy courtyard with

three small wooden buildings around it. On the right is a little school, now empty. On the left

you see a shrine, where two women are talking. In the middle, at the back, is a Confucian temple.

The atmosphere is very peaceful.

You exit the courtyard and walk uphill a short distance to the entrance of a Buddhist temple.

Apparently a funeral has just finished, because workers are dismantling wreaths of flowers and

the road up to the temple is full of cars and trucks. Not wanting to disturb anybody, you walk on.

As you continue your trek up the hill you pass under a torii, a Shinto gateway. Next, to your left,

you see a large stone basin of water, covered by a small roof. The people standing there use

bamboo dippers to wash their faces and hands.

You walk ahead to the entrance of a large and grand Shinto shrine. The pillars are red. The walls

are black and gold. You can see a young couple sitting on two stools inside the main shrine

building. A Shinto priest, dressed in a white robe and wearing a black hat, holds a wand with

white paper streamers. He waves the wand over the couple, who bow deeply. Then the priest

reads aloud from a scroll. Soon the ceremony is over.

As you walk back to the water basin, you see that a car has appeared nearby. Its doors are open,

and a different Shinto priest waves a wand with paper streamers on the inside and the outside of

the car.

At last you take a path that leads you behind the shrine. The view from there is truly wonderful

and worth the climb up the hill. The ocean spreads out on the left, and the sun shines on the city.

You climbed this hill to see the view, but you had hardly expected to come across a large

religious center, too. What were the Shinto priests doing with their wands? Why were the people

washing their hands and faces? To whom were the priests offering their prayers?

The Origins of Shinto

Like many ancient religious traditions, Shinto has no known person or group as its founder. In

fact, its mysterious origins date back to the ancient people of Japan and their stories of how the

world came into being. Like many people long ago, the people of the Japanese islands (Figure

7.1) lived close to nature, and Shinto as a religion reflects that reality in its worship of the spirits

who are believed to inhabit the natural world. Shinto seems to have arisen from a human

awareness of the power of nature and the need to be in harmony with it. Shinto retains elements

of shamanism, contact with nature spirits, and mysterious healing. While most of the world’s old

religions of nature have disappeared, Shinto still exists in modern Japan, a fact that is sometimes

marked by a shrine tucked between concrete skyscrapers.

Figure 7.1 Japanese cities with major Shinto shrines or festivals.

Shinto is more, however, than a nature religion. It also has ethnic and family dimensions. The

spirits that are worshiped include the spirits of departed family members, distant ancestors of

one’s class, and great leaders of the past—such as the emperor, for whom the Meiji period is

named, who did so much to modernize Japan.

The name Shinto presents a problem. It is not a Japanese term but rather emerged when

Buddhism came to Japan from China. Before that time, there was no need to name the religion

that was already present—it was simply what everyone did. In fact, the Japanese name for

Buddhism, Butsu-do (“the way of the Buddha”), helped give a name to the religion that

Buddhism encountered. The religion that was already practiced in Japan came to be called the

shen-dao (“the way of the gods”) in Chinese, pronounced shin’-to in Japanese. (“The way of the

gods” is also expressed in the Japanese language by the phrase kami-no-michi.)

Like the origin of Shinto, the origin of the Japanese people is also mysterious. Although

Japanese often think of themselves as a single “race,” they apparently descended from several

immigrant groups that came from the northwest, possibly Siberia and Korea, and from the south,

possibly from the Malay Peninsula. (We should be aware that even older peoples already lived in

Japan. The Ainu, an early people who live in the north of Japan, may be their descendants.)

Although the immigrant groups may have focused their primary worship on different natural

forces (such as the sun and the moon), it seems their traditions eventually mixed, ultimately

blending a large number of gods into a pantheon and yielding a single creation myth.

In the beginning, as the creation myth relates, there was primeval chaos, which came to be

populated by several generations of deities, or spirits, called kami (possibly, “sacred”). 1 Two of

these kami—Izanami (“female who invites”) and Izanagi (“male who invites”)—became the

cosmic parents who created the first islands of Japan. According to an ancient chronicle, the

Kojiki, “Hereupon all the Heavenly Deities commanded the two Deities His Augustness the

Male-Who-Invites and Her Augustness the Female-Who-Invites, ordering them to ‘make,

consolidate, and give birth to this drifting land.’ Granting to them an heavenly jeweled spear,

they deigned to charge them. So the two Deities, standing upon the Floating Bridge of Heaven,

pushed down the jeweled spear and stirred [the ocean] with it…; the brine that dripped down

from the end of the spear was piled up and became an island.” 2

Izanagi and Izanami then gave birth to additional kami, many of them nature deities. One of the

nature deities was a fire god. As a result of his birth, Izanami was horribly burned, died, and

went to the underworld. In his immense grief, Izanagi traveled to the underworld to find Izanami,

but she rebuffed him because of her ugliness caused by the burn and decay—maggots even

crawled through her body. Horrified, Izanagi returned alone to the everyday world. Dirty from

his contact with the underworld and with death, he cleansed himself in water to regain a state of

purity. As he washed, from his tear-filled eyes emerged the spirit of the sun, Amaterasu (“shining

in heaven”), and the spirit of the moon, Tsukiyomi (“moon night possessor”). From his nostrils

came the spirit of the wind, Susanowo (“impetuous male”). 3 Eventually, the sun goddess

Amaterasu sent her grandson to bring order to the islands of Japan. From him, the myth

continues, came Jimmu, the first human emperor of Japan. As a result, the imperial house

mythically traces its origin back to the goddess of the sun.

This story is intriguing for a number of reasons. It puts the kami of sun, moon, and wind into a

family relationship, thus harmonizing the stories of several kami who might have once been

worshiped separately by different tribes. It declares the emperors of Japan to be divine in origin

(which, as we shall see, has had serious ramifications throughout Japan’s history). It also

portrays Amaterasu as female, whereas the kami of the moon, Tsukiyomi, is male. (This is

unusual in traditional belief systems; usually the deity of the moon is female and the deity of the

sun is male.)

This story also expresses a concern with purity—a major focus of Shinto. Pollution (tsumi)

comes especially from contact with death, but purity can be restored by washing and ritual

expiation (harai).

Another significant aspect of this creation story is that the islands of Japan are believed to be the

creation and the home of divine spirits. Japan is thus a sort of “this-worldly” heaven, which

human beings share with divine beings. (Traditional Japanese belief maintains that the spirits live

in an “upper world” but that their realm is not separate from this world and thus they can exist

and appear in this world.) Such a view differs significantly from those religions that see this

world not as a paradise but as a place of suffering—a prelude to a heaven that can be reached

only after death. In the more optimistic Japanese view, the task of human beings is to live up to

the heavenlike world into which they have been born.

The Historical Development of Shinto

As we have already mentioned, the entry of Buddhism into Japan in the sixth century (Timeline

7.1, p. 260) forced Shinto to define itself. It was a process that was complicated by the tendency

of Mahayana Buddhism not only to tolerate but also to absorb native religious elements.

Buddhist monks viewed Shinto kami simply as different forms of Mahayana buddhas,

bodhisattvas, and other heavenly beings, and they preached that the Buddhist deities were

already being worshiped in Japan under Shinto names. This approach made the introduction of

Buddhism fairly easy. At first there was some resistance, and the new religion was viewed as

dangerous and foreign. But over time, elements from both religions were drawn upon, and a

certain blending of religious practice occurred.

Along with Buddhism came a torrent of cultural elements from China. Before contact with the

mainland, Japan already had a culture of its own, but it was fairly simple in comparison with that

of China. Contact with China introduced a system of writing, which the Japanese began to adapt

for their own use. It also introduced Chinese architecture, poetry, ceramics, art, and all sorts of

new ideas—from philosophy to cuisine, from clothing design to city planning. The Japanese

were fascinated by all these novelties, and the importation of Chinese culture continued, with

some interruptions, for a thousand years.

TimeLine 7.1

Timeline of significant events in the history of Shinto.

Accommodation with Buddhism and Confucianism

Despite the enthusiasm for Buddhism and the accompanying aspects of Chinese culture, Shinto

did not disappear. Instead, the two religions reached an accommodation. Although there were

many exceptions, several patterns emerged: Shinto was often associated with agriculture,

fertility, and birth, while Buddhism was called on for philosophy, help with serious illnesses,

funerals, and the afterlife.

The accommodation was signaled in various ways. Shinto shrines frequently contained a

Buddhist place of worship or had some Buddhist rites for the kami, and Buddhist temples often

had a Shinto shrine on their grounds. Shinto also adopted the Buddhist practices of preaching

sermons, venerating statues, and using incense. Furthermore, Shinto shrines featured Chinese

architectural details, such as tile roofs and red paint. Often the mixture was so thorough that a

place of worship was neither exclusively Shinto nor Buddhist. In the late nineteenth century,

however, the two religions were forced to disentangle themselves. At that time, the Meiji

government began to emphasize the belief that the emperor was a descendant of the founding

deities, and the government appropriated Shinto for instilling patriotism. Nonetheless, one can

still see many examples of their mutual influence today.

Confucianism was also introduced to Japan along with Chinese culture. It meshed nicely with

Japanese practices such as the veneration of ancestors, who were thought of as kami, and the

loyalty given to family and clan. As it had in China, Confucianism in Japan began to play the

role of an ethical system that supported education, family, and government. The whole nation

began to view itself as being joined in a family relationship, with the emperor as father and the

government ministers as elder brothers. Family and school instilled the Confucian virtues of

respect for the emperor, reverence for ancestors and elders, care for juniors, loyalty, discipline,

and love of learning. Many of these values were subsequently reinforced by Shinto.

Shinto and Japanese National Identity

Japan tends to swing back and forth between a great enthusiasm for outside cultures and a strong

desire to assert Japanese uniqueness. Chinese cultural imports that were strong in the seventh and

eighth centuries weakened but then returned again in another wave in the thirteenth century.

Western influence, which arrived with the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, was considered so

dangerous that Japan largely sealed itself off from the outside world until the mid-1800s. After

that came a great wave of Western influence that strengthened over the rest of the nineteenth

century. Except for the years just before and during World War II, direct Western influence has

continued through to the present.

When the West challenged Japan to modernize in the late nineteenth century, Shinto was enlisted

as a cultural counterweight that would preserve the “Japanese spirit.” In 1868 a young man,

Mutsuhito, came to the throne and assumed real, rather than merely symbolic, power. Known to

history as the Emperor Meiji, he began a deliberate process of bringing Japan into the modern

world. He imported European and American experts to build up the governmental, military, and

educational systems according to Western models. It was a turning point in Japanese history,

known as the Meiji Restoration. Shinto was forced to separate from Buddhism, and places of

worship had to decide whether to declare themselves Shinto or Buddhist. For a short time

Buddhism even suffered persecution, as Japan’s leaders emphasized the divine origins of the

emperor and began to tie Shinto to a growing spirit of nationalism.

Conflict in Religion: Kamikaze Pilots and Shinto

During World War II, Japanese pilots who made suicidal crash attacks achieved such notoriety in

the West that a new word entered the English language: kamikaze. Containing the word kami, it

means “spirit wind.” Does it have a connection to Shinto?

We know that Shinto priests blessed the planes and the kamikaze pilots. The blessings were part

of the larger governmental use of Shinto to further the military effort. But we might also see

elements of Buddhism and Confucianism in the creation of the kamikaze pilot. Buddhism

teaches the need to accept bravely the transience of life. Confucianism stresses loyalty to

government leaders and superiors. Both concepts helped generate the warrior code of loyalty,

duty, and honor, called bushido (“warrior way”). Although bushido developed after the twelfth

century as the code of the fairly small samurai class, it had immense influence throughout the

Japanese military.

During certain periods, Shinto has been utilized to promote war, and it is possible to argue that

Shinto has sometimes lent itself to nationalistic use. (The veneration of the spirits of deceased

military at Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo is a current source of debate.) In fairness, we should note

that most Buddhist sects in Japan also supported Japan’s role in the war effort.

Shinto was now a tool in the national buildup, and in 1882 a national religion called State Shinto

was established. Thousands of shrines received a special national status, with government

financial support and control by the Home Ministry. Priests at these shrines were official

government employees, and in return for financial support, they were supposed to represent the

imperial household and maintain traditional values. All other nongovernmental Shinto shrines

and organizations were treated as independent, self-supporting institutions and together were

called Sect Shinto. 4 .

Unfortunately, these developments set the stage for the exploitation of Shinto during the

militaristic expansion that occurred after Japan’s victory (1905) in the Russo-Japanese War. The

government increasingly used State Shinto to generate patriotism, both during the military

buildup of the 1930s and then during World War II. The divinity of the emperor—the descendant

of Amaterasu—was officially taught in schools, and schoolchildren memorized and recited daily

a special statement endorsing this view, the Imperial Rescript on Education.

When World War II ended, the Occupation forces demanded that Japan become a secular

country. The government abolished State Shinto; the emperor renounced his divine status; Shinto

shrines were returned to private religious practice; and all religions were placed on an equal

footing. In theory Shinto became a strictly private religion, but in reality Shinto retains a special

place in national life.

Essentials of Shinto Belief

At the heart of Shinto is a sensitivity to the mysterious powers of nature. Kami are seen not so

much as beings living in another, distant realm, but rather as powers in or near this world whose

presence might be felt, for example, when we are standing in a grove of trees or looking at a

waterfall or contemplating a distant mountain. The kami can also cause dread, such as what one

might feel in the midst of a terrible storm or being lost on an ocean. The kami are the energies

that animate nature: they cause rice to grow and wind to blow; they cause volcanoes to spew lava

and earthquakes to split the land. The kami of nature are especially seen in places of natural

power and beauty.

A Shinto priest, here in red, officially greets the kami by chanting prayers handwritten on a

scroll.

© Thomas Hilgers

Kami are treated as persons and are given names—a fact that enables human beings to approach

them and feel closely related to them. We have already learned the names of the major kami:

Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu, Tsukiyomi, and Susanowo. In addition there are lesser kami.

Among them are the spirit of fire, the deity of grain, ocean spirits, mountain spirits (among

whom the kami of Mount Fuji is preeminent), and spirits of great trees, rivers, and waterfalls.

There are also animal spirits, particularly of animals thought to have mysterious cunning, such as

the badger, the fox, and the snake.

Ancestors—who have also become kami—live close by, ready to return to see how their

descendants are faring. 5 Shinto is thus a way of maintaining a connection with family and clan

members.

After Buddhism entered Japan, influential members of the court sought to record the early myths,

both to preserve them and to defend the religious foundation of aristocratic claims. In the early

eighth century, at imperial request, the myths were written down, using the new script that had

come from China. The ancient myths appear in the beginnings of two core works, the

Kojiki(“chronicle of ancient events,” 712 CE) and the Nihongi (“chronicle of Japan,” 720 CE). 6

These works also contain genuinely historical material. Ancient Shinto ritual and prayers (norito)

were recorded in the tenth century.

Although Shinto has no clearly defined code of ethics, a type of morality does flow from the

Shinto system of values and its way of looking at life. The Western notion of internal guilt is not

found in Shinto. There is no moralistic God who gives commands or judges a person, nor is there

a sense of original sin or of any basic sinful tendency. Instead, human beings are fundamentally

good, the body is good, and this earthly life is good. Shinto worships fertility and new life, and

sex is viewed positively, without guilt. Sexual imagery—particularly phallic rocks and wood

carvings—can be seen at many shrines. 7

Unlike many other religions, Shinto tends to turn its focus away from death, which is thought of

as the opposite of life and growth. 8 Because Shinto worships the life force, it works to counteract

whatever brings sickness or death. Just as dirt is removable, so too are all other pollutants.

According to Shinto, we must keep our bodies, houses, and clothes clean and bright; and when

they become dirty or contaminated, we must wash them, get rid of the dirt, and purify them with

blessings. In Japan, washing, sweeping, and cleaning—seen everywhere daily—have religious

implications. One’s character must be unstained, too, and human relations must be kept healthy.

Similarly, the human character must have “sincerity” (makoto)—it must be pure, without

egotism, committed. (Many of Emperor Meiji’s poems, available for sale at Meiji Shrine in

Tokyo, are about the importance of sincerity.) Human beings conserve and restore their purity by

fulfilling all obligations, repaying debts, and apologizing for misdeeds.

Because kami are everywhere, living with them demands that we show them reverence. One way

is to visit them at their shrines, which are their homes. Another way is to show respect for nature,

which is one reason for Japan’s high esteem for farming and carpentry and for the architectural

use of elements such as wood and stone in their natural state. Respect for nature also means

maintaining a harmony with nature and all its processes.

Shinto Religious Practice

Shinto practice occurs at several levels. It encompasses formal worship and blessings by priests

at shrines; blessings by priests away from the shrine; Shinto observances of holidays, the

seasons, and nature; everyday practice by individuals in their homes; and the ceremonial practice

of Shinto by the emperor and other authorities. Active shrines have a priest—a job that is

frequently hereditary.

Worship at Shrines

People visit shrines to pray for health, for success in school and career, and for the well-being of

those they love. A visit begins by passing under the torii, which looks like a ceremonial entrance

or gateway and is sometimes tall and magnificent. 9 Worshipers wash their hands and mouths at a

water basin just inside the entrance. They proceed through an open courtyard to the building—

the haiden—where the kami is worshiped. Behind the haiden (and often visible from it) is a

small hall or cabinet where the kami is enshrined. In smaller shrines, there may be no front

worship hall but only a small place where the kami is enshrined. (It is possible that the earliest

shrines had no buildings at all.) 10

Worshipers ascend the stairs to the haiden or to the space in front of the room where the kami is

enshrined. They bow, donate a coin, then often ring a bell and clap several times to gain the

kami’s attention. They bow again and pray, either silently or by chanting. Then they bow again

and leave. Sometimes they tie small wooden plaques (ema) or pieces of paper, with their requests

written on them, to fences or to the branches of a nearby sacred tree.

When worshipers visit a shrine for a blessing, a priest says a prayer and waves over them a

branch or wand adorned with paper streamers. This implement is used to purify the devotees and

the surrounding area.

Each shrine has its special festival days (matsuri). These may be celebrated with grand

processions and various types of entertainment. Sometimes, to honor the kami, celebrants parade

the kami in a hand-carried litter, an omikoshi. On festival days, temporary booths are set up to

sell food and religious souvenirs. (Large shrines, such as Meiji Shrine, have permanent booths.)

Among the souvenirs are amulets of various kinds, some in brocade bags, which are thought to

bring good luck. Some amulets are kept in the home, and small ones are kept in a car for

protection.

Churches, temples, and shrines tend to attract people who pray for improvement in their lives.

Shinto shrines often have areas where visitors leave handwritten messages for the shrine’s deities

and visitors.

© Thomas Hilgers

People visit shrines for blessings at important times in their lives. Babies are brought for a

blessing a month after birth. Children are brought for additional blessings when they are young,

when special protection is thought to be valuable. This practice is known as “7-5-3”; girls are

brought at ages 3 and 7, and boys are brought at age 5.

Shinto priests also perform ceremonies, such as weddings, away from the shrine. Once held in

homes, weddings nowadays often take place in large hotels or reception rooms because they are

usually followed by a banquet. Priests also bless construction sites, houses, and cars, as well as

perform exorcisms at locations that have come to be associated with misfortune, in order to make

people feel comfortable there again.

Shinto priests wear long robes (often white, symbolizing cleanliness and purity), which are based

on old Chinese aristocratic designs that became popular in the court of the Heian period. Priests’

shoes are made of carved wood (like Dutch wooden shoes) and covered with black lacquer.

Priests also wear high caps of black lacquered horsehair. The hats of dignitaries have a long

flexible extension, which is attached at the top or back of the hat. The extension, created in

China, is believed to represent the tail of the horse. (A symbol of energy and strength, the horse

came to be considered a sacred animal. A few Shinto shrines have even kept stables of horses.)

Some shrines also have female attendants (miko), who represent a vestige of early shamanism.

They wear bright red skirts, assist in ritual, and play short, metal musical instruments covered

with bells.

A Shinto priest uses a purification wand to symbolically drive out dangerous spirits during the

blessing of a new car.

© Thomas Hilgers

Celebration of the New Year

New Year’s is a very special time in Shinto practice. In preparation for the holiday, the home

must be thoroughly cleaned in order to make it attractive to the spirits, who are invited to visit.

The main gate or door is decorated with a special arrangement called the kadomatsu (“entry

pine”), which is made up of three pieces of cut green bamboo, a small branch of pine, and, if

possible, a sprig of plum. The bamboo signifies persistence; the pine, freshness and life

throughout the winter; and the plum, the first sign of life in early spring. Together, the branches

of greenery in the kadomatsu symbolize human virtue.

During New Year’s, rice is pounded into a soft dough called mochi, then made into round shapes

that are piled on top of each other and topped with a tangerine. Rice signifies wealth and fertility,

and the mochi anticipates the planting of rice in the spring. On New Year’s Eve, the family

gathers to eat a special soup made of vegetables and mochi, called ozoni, which is thought to

promote health. On New Year’s Day, men and women dress in kimono, take offerings to Shinto

shrines, and pray there for success in the coming year. Over the following days, they make

formal visits to relatives and friends and renew relationships. The themes of the whole holiday

season are cleansing and the renewal of life.

Men carry shrine offerings during a cherry-blossom festival in San Francisco. Shinto shrine

ceremonies are typically formal and sedate, but some nature celebrations can be raucous.

© Michael S. Yamashita/National Geographic Stock

Observances of the Seasons and Nature

Traditionally, Shinto has marked the seasons with special practices, particularly for planting and

harvesting rice. In the industrial nation of Japan today, however, these rituals are becoming less

important.

Because respect for nature is at the heart of Shinto, reverential objects and small shrines are

sometimes placed in the midst of forests, in fields, or on mountains. Among these are torii

(which can even be found in the ocean), a pile of stones (possibly phallic in origin), or a sacred

rope. Respect for the spirits of ancestors is shown by pouring water or tea over gravestones and

by leaving offerings of food and flowers.

One noteworthy Shinto practice is purification with water, a practice that must be very ancient

because it appears in several myths about the kami. As we have already mentioned, devotees

always wash their hands with water at the entrance to a shrine. A related ritual, called misogi,

involves standing under a waterfall as a ritual act of purification. Before entering the water, the

devotee does calisthenics and deep-breathing exercises. The practitioner is then cleansed with a

bit of salt. Backing into the water, the person stands for some time as the water falls full-force on

his or her shoulders. The practitioner may shout and cut the air with a hand to enhance the

experience of purification. The ritual ends with a drink of sake (rice wine) and possibly a meal, if

it is performed with others. Misogi combines the ritual of cleansing with the ideal of self-

discipline and probably began in the practices of ascetics who lived in the mountains.

Another Shinto practice is the climbing of a sacred mountain to gain union with the spirit of that

mountain. The climb up Mount Fuji, for example, is something that many Japanese hope to

accomplish at least once in their lifetime, and several Shinto sects specifically worship the kami

of Mount Fuji.

Other Practices

Daily worship occurs in the home, where a small Shinto shrine called the kamidana is

maintained, often on a high shelf. It may contain a mirror, and offerings are made there,

especially of rice and water. It is common to offer prayers at the kamidana at the beginning of

each day. Some homes also maintain an outdoor shrine in the garden.

A semiofficial form of Shinto that is practiced by the emperor and his household is also still part

of the religion. The emperor has traditionally been considered the high priest of Shinto, and his

reign is inaugurated with Shinto rites. In order to guarantee the fertility of the rice harvest for the

entire nation, he participates every spring in a ceremonial rice-planting on the palace grounds. He

and his family also visit the shrine of Ise annually to pray for the country. And when he dies,

every emperor is buried with Shinto rites—something quite rare, because among ordinary

Japanese people, funeral services are conducted by Buddhist priests.

Personal Experience: A Temple High above Kyoto

On my first trip to Kyoto, I had planned to spend a full day walking in its beautiful eastern hills.

My ambitious plan was to begin at the north end, to continue south through the eastern part of

the city, and to end finally at the Buddhist “mother temple” of Kyoto, Kiyomizu-dera (“clear

water temple”). I had heard that it was a wonderful spot for watching the sun disappear and the

night begin.

As sunset grew near, I arrived at the stairs that lead up to the temple. To call the place a single

“temple” is misleading. It is really a large complex of wooden buildings scattered across a

wooded hill. The main part of the temple is built on top of an enormous deck that extends far out

over the hillside, supported by wooden pillars that rise high above the treetops.

Standing on the deck, I could see across all of Kyoto. Other people were there, too, standing

patiently at the railing waiting for the sunset. We all watched reverently as the sun slipped

beneath the horizon; then the clouds turned pink, and the city was engulfed in an orange haze. As

daylight faded and the gray city turned blue, nighttime Kyoto was being born. It was easy to

imagine, down below, the restaurants, noodle shops, and tiny bars all coming to life. Up here,

however, the antique atmosphere of Kiyomizu-dera embraced us with its distance from the

world.

Visitors to Kiyomizu-dera catch and drink water from a sacred stream.

© Paulo Fridman/Corbis

On the way out was a triple stream—the “clear water” that gave the temple its name. As I walked

down the high temple stairs, I could see, far below, the three thin streams of water that cascaded

into a pool. Coming closer, I noticed in the twilight the bamboo ladles that lay there for visitors

to use to take a drink. As I reached the bottom of the stairs, I looked again. There, at the base of

the three waterfalls, obscure in the dimness and plunging water, a man in a white robe stood

motionless, knee-deep in the water. I saw that his palms were held together in a gesture of

prayer. I took a drink from the waterfall. I then retreated toward the path that leads out into the

valley below the temple. I looked back one last time at the falling water. The man had not

moved.

I’d gone to Kiyomizu-dera expecting a beautiful sunset, the scent of incense, and perhaps the

sound of a Buddhist chant. What I hadn’t expected to find, near the temple’s base, was the

practice of the Shinto ritual misogi. 11

Yet how fitting, I thought, that a religion in Japan that grew

up in close contact with the native religion should today have, as the basis for its name and at the

base of this grand temple’s frame, waters sacred to a Shinto kami.

Shinto and the Arts

Shinto worships beauty, but the influence of Shinto on art is not immediately clear. There is no

strong Shinto tradition of figurative art, in which gods are portrayed in paintings and sculpture.

There are some exceptions, but kami are thought of almost universally as invisible presences, not

to be portrayed. Instead, the defining features of Shinto art are openness, a use of natural

elements, and a deliberate simplicity.

It can be argued that Shinto’s high esteem for nature has had a profound influence on Japanese

art and architecture. The Japanese screens and scrolls that portray nature that are often said to be

the product of Daoism or Zen are equally the product of Shinto. The same is true of all the fine

and decorative art forms, such as ceramics and kimono design, in which elements of nature are a

primary inspiration. Traditional Japanese architecture, with its floor of rice matting and its

unpainted wooden walls, also shows Shinto influence.

Perhaps because Shinto places such little emphasis on doctrines and ethical demands, it has

focused instead on the beauty of ritual, giving Shinto an important relationship with the arts. Its

love of ceremony has demanded that attention be paid to all objects and clothing used in its

sacred ritual, to the places where the ritual takes place, and to the exact way the ritual is

performed.

Architecture

The traditional architecture of shrines (jinja) is a primary expression of Shinto artistic expression.

These structures seem to have begun as storehouses for grain and other foods, which were raised

off the ground for protection from water and insects. These granaries functioned as the natural

and comfortable homes of the gods who served as protectors of the stored foods. The original

pattern of the shrine called for walls made of wood and roofs made of thatch, which would be

renewed regularly. Roof beams often extended high above the roof, in a style that is also found

in South Pacific island architecture. This feature of extended roof beams (chigi) and the fact that

the construction materials seem to be appropriate for a warm climate lead many to think that the

Shinto shrine originated possibly in Malaysia and islands farther south.

“Pure” Shinto style, with uncurving gabled thatch roofs, unpainted and uncarved wooden walls,

and nailless construction, is most evident at Ise. Because the wood and thatch need to be replaced

regularly in order to keep them bright and fresh, the maintenance of this style can be afforded at

only a few sites.

The shrines of Ise, which are rebuilt every twenty years, are striking because of their extreme

simplicity. They sit on a ground of white stones in the midst of tall cedar trees, and to reach the

inner shrine, the visitor must cross a river. In the summer, the cicadas fill the air with cricketlike

sounds, adding to the sense of primordial mystery.

© Miyoko Fukushima/Demotix/Corbis

Although Tokyo’s Meiji Shrine is less than a century old, its architecture is classically Shinto.

Special celebrations at the shrine often feature traditional music.

The earliest torii, or ceremonial entryway, was probably made of three logs lashed together,

though we don’t know its exact origin. From this basic shape, many graceful variations emerged.

The original torii were certainly made of unpainted wood, although today many are painted

white, red, or orange. The torii usually signify sacred landmarks, but they can also be set in

water. (The enormous orange torii standing in the ocean at Miyajima Island near Hiroshima is

the best-known example.)

At some shrines, so many torii are set up as thanksgiving offerings that over many years they

have formed a tunnel. Tied to the torii or to the front of a shrine is often a ceremonial rope

(shimenawa), from which white paper streamers may be hung, particularly on festival days.

Because kami are considered to reside in any place in nature that is awe-inspiring, shimenawa

may also adorn exceptional trees and rocks.

Music and Dance

Shinto is also known for its distinctive music called gagaku. Originally played in the Chinese

imperial court of the Tang and Song dynasties, gagaku was adapted by Shinto and so slowed

down that it creates an impression of ancient solemnity. The instruments that are used make a

flutelike, reedy sound that seems close yet far away, timeless yet fresh and new. Gagaku is a

perfect accompaniment to Shinto ritual.

One story in the Kojiki tells of how Amaterasu was lured out of a rock cave by music and dance.

Shinto shrines often include dance at festival times to entertain the resident kami. Shrine dance

eventually evolved into the stately Noh dance dramas, which tell the stories of people and their

contacts with the spirits. The making of masks and exquisite robes for Noh performers has

become a fine art.

Shinto Offshoots: the New Religions

The fact that Shinto is not a strongly institutionalized religion is both a weakness and a strength.

It is a weakness because Shinto generally has not had the organizational structure necessary to

make converts or spread the religion beyond Japan. Shinto shrines do belong to confederations,

however, which help them with staffing; and many smaller shrines are affiliated with one of the

old, large national shrines.

The relative weakness of institutional structure, though, can be a great benefit. Using rituals,

symbols, and values derived from Shinto, people are able to create new forms of belief and

practice that are more likely to resonate with contemporary society. Thus there has been a

proliferation of sects, especially over the past two hundred years. Some sects are more traditional

than others. Some worship all the major kami, while others focus on just one of them. Some

borrow from Confucianism, Buddhism, or Christianity and speak of a divine parent (or parents)

and of the human race as a single family. Some utilize traditions derived from mountain

asceticism. Some emphasize healing. Some venerate a charismatic founder who is thought to be

a kami and the recipient of a divine revelation. Offshoots that consider themselves separate

religions are sometimes called the New Religions.

Japan, like Korea, has had a long history of shamanism; and in both countries the shamans are

often female. (As mentioned earlier, the miko—the female assistants at some shrines—are a

ritual vestige of shamanism.) We might recall that the shaman acts as an intermediary between

the gods and human beings. The shaman helps bring physical and emotional healing. This

openness to shamanism has helped produce the offshoots of Shinto that revere an inspired leader

who was the recipient of a divine revelation. These offshoots illustrate the ability of Japanese

religious traditions to take on new forms.

One of the New Religions is Tenrikyo (“heavenly reason teaching”), founded by Nakayama Miki

(1798–1887), who discovered her religious abilities by accident. When Miki called in a shaman

to perform rites to improve her unhappy life and miserable marriage, she intended only to act as

the shaman’s assistant. Instead, she went into a trance that lasted several days. During the trance

a kami spoke through her, saying, “I am the True and Original God…. I have descended from

Heaven to save all human beings, and I want to take Miki as the Shrine of God….” 12

When Miki

came out of the trance, she explained that many kami had spoken to her. The greatest, she said,

was the parent kami (Oya-gami) of all human beings. The name of the kami was Tenri-o-no-

mikoto (“Lord of heavenly reason”). This kami wished her to disseminate teachings to people

about how to live properly so that they might have health and long life.

The notion that physical health comes from mental health is strong in Tenrikyo, which preaches

healing by faith. This religion is exceptional for its institutional structure and other traditional

religious elements that allow it to spread beyond Japan. It has sacred scripture—the poetry that

Nakayama Miki wrote as a result of her revelations. 13

The sect has even created a city near Nara,

called Tenri City, where its ideals are put into practice. Tenri City contains a university, library,

and museum; religious services are offered twice daily in the main hall.

Another New Religion is called Omoto-kyo (“great origin teaching”), or simply Omoto. It was

founded by Deguchi Nao (1836–1918), a woman who experienced terrible poverty and

misfortune. Of her eight children, three died and two suffered mental illness. Nao’s husband died

when she was 30, and she was reduced to selling rags. In her despair, she experienced a vision of

the creation of a new, perfect world. Working with a man she adopted as her son, Deguchi

Onisaburo, Nao established a religion that she hoped would begin the transformation of society.

Nao’s vision grew out of the traditional Shinto view of earth as a heavenly realm of the spirits

and out of its shamanistic trust in the spirits to bring healing to human life. Like many other New

Religions, Omoto aims to better this world rather than accumulate rewards for an afterlife. It

wishes to bring happiness to the individual and peace to society.

Omoto is of particular interest because it sees in the creation of art the essence of religious

manifestation. For Omoto, all art is religious. To spread its belief about the connection between

art and religion, Omoto began a school at its headquarters in Kameoka, near Kyoto, to teach

traditional Japanese arts to non-Japanese. To encourage world peace, Omoto has promoted the

study of Esperanto (a universal language) and sponsored contacts with members of other

religions, such as Muslims and Christians. Omoto has even held services in New York’s

Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, where Shinto ritual objects remain on display.

A priest presents a symbolic offering of sake at the entrance to a haiden at Omoto headquarters

in Kameoka, Japan.

© Thomas Hilgers

Deeper Insights: Shinto And Nature

Shinto is a religion that beautifully confirms the environmental movement, for it is rooted in

sensitivity to the world of nature. At its heart is a feeling for natural forces, which it calls kami

(spirits). These forces of nature are the great powers that make us feel awe. Among them are tall

mountains, waterfalls, ocean waves, storms, lightning, the moon, and the sun. Shinto recognizes

the strength of the kami of nature, and it encourages human beings to be in harmony with these

powers.

Shinto is not a religion that preaches morality in a heavy-handed way. Rather, it hopes simply to

inspire correct and harmonious behavior, especially through its actions. For example, Shinto

shrines always include some trees, where the spirits may dwell. And Shinto shrine properties

sometimes have carefully managed forests; the trees of the shrine forests are used for the repair

and rebuilding of shrine buildings. Yet forests in general are also valued in their own right. As an

example of this, planning is under way for a ceremony to be held soon at Ise Shrine, where

representatives of major faiths will formally ascribe to an International Religious Forestry

Standard. The statement will outline the ways in which forests owned by religions should be

managed for environmental benefits.

A Shinto Faith Statement, prepared by the Jinja Honcho, representative of all Shinto traditions in

Japan, states well the Shinto roots in the natural world:

The ancient Japanese considered that all things of this world have their own spirituality, as they

were born from the divine couple. Therefore, the relationship between the natural environment of

this world and people is that of blood kin, like the bond between brother and sister…. But in fact,

the Japanese spirituality inherited from the ancient ancestors has been gradually lost or hidden

somewhere deep in our consciousness. It might not be an exaggeration if we said that not only

environmental problems but also all problems of modern society have been caused by lack of the

awe, reverence, and appreciation for nature that ancient people used to have and taught us. 14

Art is the mother of religion.

Omoto saying

Omoto has itself produced offshoots. One is the Church of World Messianity (Sekaikyusei-kyo).

It was founded by Okada Mokichi (1882–1955), who was believed to be able to heal by means of

a source of light within his body. He thought that he could share this healing light by writing the

character for light (hikari) on pieces of paper, which he gave to his followers. Devotees work for

the coming of a time on earth when the world will be free of war, poverty, and disease. Elements

of Buddhism can be seen in this religion; for example, the supreme deity is called Miroku, the

Japanese name of Maitreya, the Buddha expected to come in the future.

Other Shinto offshoots include Seicho-no-Ie (“house of growth”) and P. L. Kyodan (“perfect

liberty community”), which emerged from Omoto, and Honmichi (“true road”), which emerged

from Tenrikyo. The goals of all these groups are similar: harmony, beauty, health, happiness, and

the creation of a paradise on earth.

The New Religions are the object of some interest for what they may foretell about the direction

of religions. They tend to be practical, peace-oriented, and “this-worldly.” Many value the

contributions of women, and many esteem the arts. Borrowing valuable elements from other

religions, they are moving in new directions.

Shinto and the Modern World

Shinto could have died out as a result of the successful growth of Buddhism, or it could have

easily faded away when Japan adopted Western science and technology. Yet Shinto is a unique

example of an early nature religion that is still vital in the modern world.

Though an ancient religion, Shinto is still relevant today. Having maintained its traditional

emphasis on nature, it has much to teach the modern world about respect for the environment—

for wood and stone, for flowers and fruits, and for the changing of the seasons. In its reverence

for nature, Shinto is reminiscent of other indigenous religions. Many of Shinto’s values also fit

well with modern sensibilities. These values include low-key, nonjudgmental moral views;

inclusiveness; an emphasis on healing and living contentedly in this world; a positive view of the

body; and the practice of esthetically pleasing rituals.

Shinto has gone wherever Japanese people have settled: Brazil, Peru, the United States—

particularly Hawai`i, California, and the state of Washington. Some devotees of Shinto see its

potential as a universal religion of nature and would like to see it spread among non-Japanese

people. But Shinto is not a missionary religion, nor does it generally have the institutional

structure to do missionary work. It is possible, however, that some well-organized Shinto

offshoot, such as Tenrikyo, will spread far beyond its country of origin.

Shinto is no longer confined to Japan. Here, the Reverend Barrish of Tsubaki America Shinto

Shrine purifies a building in Seattle.

© Rev. Barrish/Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America

It may be that traditional Shinto derives much of its vitality from the specific terrain, climate, and

geographical isolation of Japan—from its mountains, waterfalls, thick forests, and myriad

islands, all in continual change from the procession of the seasons. If so, then Shinto will remain

restricted to that country. Nonetheless, it is easy at least to imagine the spread of traditional

Shinto, especially to areas in which its special elements might take root in a welcoming,

supportive community.

Reading: Shinto Prayer For Peace *

* Provided courtesy of www.sapphyr.net.

Shinto representatives used this prayerful statement at an international peace conference. It has

since become widely known. It uses imagery based on natural elements to speak about human

society.

Although the people living across the ocean surrounding us, I believe, are all our brothers and

sisters, why are there constant troubles in this world? Why do winds and waves rise in the ocean

surrounding us? I only earnestly wish that the wind will soon puff away all the clouds which are

hanging over the tops of the mountains. 15

Test Yourself

1. The term Shinto comes from the Chinese shen-dao, which means “______________.”

1. the way of the gods 2. the path of the heroes 3. the source of knowledge 4. the walk through a torii

2. In the Shinto creation myth, primeval chaos became populated by several generations of

deities, or spirits, called______________________

1. Meiji 2. kami 3. Ise 4. kami-no-michi

3. In Shinto mythology, the sun goddess Amaterasu sent her grandson to bring order to the

islands of Japan. From her grandson came Jimmu, the first___________________ of Japan.

1. guru 2. prophet 3. emperor 4. god

4. The entry of__________________ into Japan forced Shinto to define itself. They preached

that their deities were already being worshiped in Japan under Shinto names.

1. Hindus 2. Chinese 3. Sikhs 4. Buddhists

5. A turning point in Japanese history was the_________________, named after the emperor

who began a deliberate process of bringing Japan into the modern world in the late

nineteenth century.

1. Motoori Age 2. Meiji Restoration 3. Kamo Enlightenment 4. Shinto Scholarly Revival

6. When_____________________ ended, the Occupation forces demanded that Japan become

a secular country, and state Shinto was abolished.

1. the Russo-Japanese War

2. World War I 3. World War II 4. the Meiji Restoration

7. A visit to a shrine begins by passing under a torii, which looks like a ceremonial entrance or

gateway. After washing their hands and mouths with water, worshipers proceed to a

courtyard building, called the___________________, where the kami is worshiped.

1. haiden 2. Nihongi 3. Kojiki 4. ema

8. Shinto is known for its distinctive music, called____________________, which uses

instruments that make a flutelike, reedy sound that seems close yet far away, timeless yet

fresh and new.

1. kadomatsu 2. ozoni 3. gagaku 4. Noh

9. Daily Shinto worship occurs in the home, where a small shrine called

the______________________ is maintained.

1. Kyoto 2. kamidana 3. misogi 4. ema

10. One of the so-called New Religions, an offshoot of Shinto, is

__________________(“heavenly reason teaching”), which preaches healing by faith. A

central notion of this religion is that physical health comes from mental health.

1. Tenrikyo 2. Kameoka 3. Miroku 4. Eclecticism

11. Imagine you were to give a presentation in class on the most important aspects of Shinto.

Explain how you would structure your discussion. Would you place greater emphasis on

Shinto beliefs or on Shinto practices? Why?

12. Review the section on the Japanese New Religions Tenrikyo and Omoto. Why do you

think these New Religions would be especially attractive to some people? Why do you

think some people might find these New Religions to be unappealing?

Resources

Books

Blacker, Carmen. The Catalpa Bow. New York: Japan Library, 1999. A literate study of

Japanese shamanism.

Evans, Ann Llewellyn. Shinto Norito: A Book of Prayers. Honolulu: University of Hawai`i

Press, 2000. A collection of ancient Japanese Shinto prayers.

Kasulis, Thomas P. Shinto: The Way Home. Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 2004. An

introduction to Shinto that emphasizes lived religious experience.

Nelson, John. Enduring Identities: The Guise of Shinto in Contemporary Japan. Honolulu:

University of Hawai`i Press, 2000. A study of Kamigamo Shrine in Kyoto—its buildings and

grounds, its yearly rituals, and its people.

._________________ A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine. Seattle: University of Washington

Press, 1996. A firsthand account of the rituals carried on during each of the four seasons at a

shrine in Nagasaki.

Picken, Stuart. Shinto Meditations for Revering the Earth. Berkeley: Stone Bridge Press, 2002.

Reflections on the seasons and elements of nature.

Yamakage, Motohisa. The Essence of Shinto: Japan’s Spiritual Heart. Tokyo: Kodansha

International, 2007. A book that makes the case for Shinto as a living religion, stressing its

nondogmatic, non-doctrinal, and decentralized character.

Film/TV

Kodo: The Drummers of Japan. (Director Jôji Ide; Image Entertainment.) A one-hour

documentary of the world-famous Kodo drummers of Japan, as they perform at the Acropolis in

Greece.

Princess Mononoke. (Director Hayao Miyazaki; Miramax.) Miyazaki’s 1997 anime classic that

chronicles the struggle between nature and civilization, drawing creative inspiration from Shinto

belief in the kami of nature.

Spirits of the State: Japan’s Yasukuni Shrine. (Films Media Group.) A look at Yasukuni Shrine,

one of Shinto’s most important and controversial shrines, dedicated to fallen soldiers.

Ugetsu Monogatari. (Director Kenji Mizoguchi; Criterion Collection.) A classic film in which

two peasants follow different destinies, influenced by Shinto and Buddhist beliefs.

Woman in the Dunes. (Director Hiroshi Teshigahara; Image Entertainment.) A directorial

masterpiece that examines the changing mental states of a biologist after he is imprisoned in a

sandpit with a rural woman; notable for its depiction of the conflict between the modern

Japanese person and traditional values tied intimately to nature.

Music/Audio

Festival of Japanese Music in Hawaii, vols. 1 and 2. (Smithsonian Folkways.) A recording of

religious music accompanying Shinto festivals in Hawai`i.

Japanese Koto. (Smithsonian Folkways.) A recording of traditional Japanese koto music.

Japanese Shinto Ritual Music. (Collectables Records.) A collection of traditional Shinto ritual

music for invocations, dances, festivals, and purification ceremonies.

Religious Music of Asia. (Smithsonian Folkways.) A recording of Asian religious music,

including Shinto processional and congregational chants.

Shakuhachi—The Japanese Flute. (Nonesuch.) A compilation of traditional Japanese flute

music, some of which is closely associated with the Japanese imperial household.

Internet

The Internet Sacred Text Archive: http://www.sacred-texts.com/shi/. The “Shinto and Japanese

Religions” page of the Internet Sacred Text Archive site, containing public-domain versions of

Shinto texts, including the Kojiki and the Nihongi.

Kokugakuin University Encyclopedia of Shinto: http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/.

The most comprehensive Shinto reference database available online, including detailed

information on kami, institutions, shrines, rites and festivals, belief and practice, and much more.

Yasukuni Shrine: http://www.yasukuni.or.jp/english/. The official English-language Web site of

the controversial Shinto shrine in Tokyo, dedicated to the kami of those who have died fighting

in the service of the Japanese emperor.

Key Terms

Amaterasu (ah’-mah-teh-rah’-soo)

“Shining in heaven”; goddess of the sun.

bushido (boo’-shee-doh)

“Warrior knight way”; military devotion to a ruler, demanding loyalty, duty, and self-

sacrifice; an ideal promoted by State Shinto.

gagaku (gah’-gah-koo)

The stately ceremonial music of Shinto.

Ise (ee’-say)

Location in southeastern Honshu of a major shrine to Amaterasu.

Izanagi (ee-zah-nah’-gee)

“Male who invites”; primordial male parent god.

Izanami (ee-zah-nah’-mee)

“Female who invites”; primordial female parent god.

jinja (jin’-jah)

A Shinto shrine.

kami (kah’-mee)

A spirit, god, or goddess of Shinto.

kamidana (kah-mee-dah’-nah)

A shelf or home altar for the veneration of kami.

kamikaze (kah’-mee-kah’-zay)

“Spirit wind”; suicide fighter pilots of World War II.

Kojiki (koh’-jee-kee)

The earliest chronicle of Japanese ancient myths.

misogi (mee-soh’-gee)

A ritual of purification that involves standing under a waterfall.

Nihongi (nee-hohn’-gee)

The second chronicle of Japanese myths and history.

Noh

Dramas performed in mask and costume, associated with Shinto.

Omoto (oh’-moh-toh)

A New Religion, which stresses art and beauty.

samurai (sah’-moo-rai)

Feudal soldier.

shimenawa (shee-may-nah’-wah)

Twisted rope, marking a sacred spot.

Tenrikyo (ten’-ree-kyoh)

A New Religion devoted to human betterment.

torii (to-ree’)

A gatelike structure that marks a Shinto sacred place.

Religion Beyond the Classroom

Visit the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/molloy6e for additional exercises and

features, including “Religion beyond the Classroom” and “For Fuller Understanding.”

Experiencing the Worlds Religions. Tradition, Challenge, and Change, Sixth Edition

Chapter 7: Shinto

ISBN: 9780078038273 Author: Michael Molloy

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Company (6)